By optimizing the placement of conductive yarns within the fabric, the sensor maintained a stable electrical response under repeated mechanical stress cycles. The optimized design demonstrated nearly constant resistance even after 10,000 abrasion cycles, highlighting its durability for long-term wearable health monitoring systems.
The growing adoption of telemedicine and wearable healthcare technologies has increased demand for robust, lightweight, breathable, and unobtrusive physiological monitoring devices. However, traditional clinical sensors often rely heavily on rigid components and skin adhesives that can cause discomfort and restrict natural movement during prolonged use.
In this context, textile-based strain sensors have emerged as promising alternatives because they can conform effectively to the body while converting mechanical deformation into measurable electrical signals. Movements such as respiration and body motion alter the material's electrical resistance, enabling real-time physiological monitoring.
Among textile architectures, crochet-based structures offer controlled stretchability and excellent recovery under repeated loading due to their looped construction. However, maintaining stable performance remains challenging because continuous friction and cyclic deformation can damage conductive coatings, leading to signal drift and reduced durability.
Fabric Architecture: Designing for Durability
To address durability challenges, researchers fabricated 10 elastic band designs using an industrial crochet knitting machine with a gauge of nine needles per centimeter. The base fabric consisted of elastane threads and 150-denier polyester yarns. Elastane provided stretch and recovery, while the polyester yarns formed a supporting structural network.
The sensing designs incorporated a commercial conductive yarn composed of 20% silver (Ag) and 80% nylon. To evaluate the effect of conductive yarn placement, the polyester yarns were replaced at different structural positions, including the warp direction and integrated warp-weft configurations.
This enabled the assessment of how fabric placement influences electrical performance and protects conductive coating elements from degradation.
Simulating Wear: Testing for Long-Term Durability
To evaluate long-term durability, the fabric bands underwent accelerated abrasion testing using a modified Martindale method at 0, 5000, and 10,000 cycles. Changes in fabric thickness, mass, and surface pilling were monitored throughout the testing process.
Electrical performance was assessed under realistic conditions using a custom breathing simulator that replicated human chest wall expansion. The system applied a constant 5% cyclic strain at a frequency of 20 cycles per minute, corresponding to the resting respiratory rate of a healthy adult.
Resistance data was collected using a 16-bit analog-to-digital converter connected to a dual-core microcontroller through a standard voltage divider circuit, enabling continuous monitoring of the sensor response during simulated respiration.
Signal Stability: The Role of Yarn Configuration
The experimental outcomes demonstrated a strong relationship between fabric architecture, mechanical degradation, and electrical performance. As abrasion cycles increased, all samples exhibited reductions in tensile strength and elongation due to surface pilling and structural wear. While the placement of conductive yarns had little effect on the mechanical degradation of the underlying fabric, it significantly influenced sensor performance.
Samples with conductive yarns positioned only in the warp direction experienced substantial signal deterioration. After 10,000 abrasion cycles, baseline resistance increased by 29% due to oxidation of the silver coating and the loss of conductive pathways.
In contrast, the balanced warp-weft configuration demonstrated the highest durability and electrical stability, maintaining nearly constant baseline resistance and strain gauge factor throughout testing.
Other configurations showed less predictable behavior, with some samples showing significant performance degradation after 5000 cycles but recovering to about 95% of their original performance after 10,000 cycles. This effect was attributed to the reorganization of conductive fibers, which formed new electrical pathways during prolonged abrasion.
Transforming Healthcare and Sports Monitoring
The abrasion-resistant textile strain sensor expands the potential of smart garments across healthcare, sports, and wearable technologies. Integrated into hospital gowns, chest straps, or smart sports apparel, the sensor can effectively track breathing rate, inhalation patterns, and apnea events without the discomfort associated with rigid monitoring devices.
The durable network also supports long-term use in telemedicine and rehabilitation. By maintaining stable electrical performance under repeated friction and deformation, the sensor can monitor body movement and physical exertion during daily activities or exercise.
Future Directions: Advancing Smart Textiles
This study demonstrates that the real-time reliability of textile electronics depends on the spatial arrangement of conductive yarns within the fabric structure. By demonstrating that a balanced warp-weft configuration can protect silver-coated filaments from abrasive damage, it establishes a practical framework for developing smart garments that maintain sensing performance under repeated mechanical stress.
Future work should focus on advancing the technology toward commercial deployment. While the current two-wire configuration is suitable for portable prototypes, more advanced measurement systems could further reduce the effects of contact resistance.
Testing under multi-directional strain and repeated laundering will be key to verifying long-term performance in everyday environments. Overall, these developments will support the creation of reliable wearable sensing systems for healthcare and other smart-garment applications.
Journal References
Mustafa, E., et al. (2026). Electrical and mechanical properties of conductive elastic bands as wearable sensors. Sci Rep. 16. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-026-54874-6.
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